A NEW CASE IN COOPERATION IN ISLAMIC COUNTRIES:
PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES AS A COMPONENT OF
“DEFENSE INDUSTRY SERVICE INDUSTRY”
Ali COŞAR
(Retd.) Tank Senior Colonel
ASSAM (Justice Defenders Strategic Studies Center
Strategy and Security Specialist
Defense and Organization Manager in SADAT Defense Inc.
Bachelor’s Degree: Turkish Military Academy/ANKARA (1977-1981) – Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Tank Class School (1981-1982)
Army War College / ISTANBUL (1991-1993)
ABSTRACT: In this declaration, within the scope of establishing the Joint Defense Industry Cooperation of Islamic Countries; As the main geography where most of these countries are located, in the “ASRICA” countries, besides the production of warfare weapons and vehicles, as a service sector application of the military art; by introducing the concept of ‘Defense Service Industry’, this activity is becoming more and more widespread in every Islamic country; it will be mentioned that efforts should be made under the control of states, to be put into legislation by placing them on a legal basis, and to play a catalyst role in developing the Islamic Countries defense industry cooperation environment.
For the last 2 centuries, especially the Imperialist Christian West; In addition to the advances they made in science and art, other major non-Muslim states continued the economic exploitation order and socio-cultural hegemony they established in the Asian and African Continents, especially in the Islamic Countries, by using their war industry power and potential.
Joint Defense Industry Cooperation is an inevitable necessity and a "sine qua non" condition for Islamic Countries to emerge as a world-wide power and achieve independence. This partnership activity should not be contented with producing and marketing the most modern warfare weapons and vehicles required by the age. Simultaneously with these activities, deep-rooted military traditions in Islamic countries; they should encourage and facilitate the establishment of private military companies in the field of "military service industry" as a new phenomenon in the field of defense industry of the great Islamic States, which have centuries of war experience. Through these companies to be established, in order to oppose the economic exploitation, occupation, oppression and violence of the imperialist countries in the Islamic geography; It will be possible for them to join forces and to overcome their unfortunate situation that has been going on for centuries by providing “Defense Service Support” and Consultancy Services to the armies and administrative staff of that country.
Keywords: Private military companies, military service industry, defense industry, defense consultancy, modern colonialism, Islamic Countries Joint Cooperation
1. INTRODUCTION
As a result of a general regression in science, art and protecting other civilizational values, which has been going on for the last two centuries, the Islamic Countries (1) against the imperial western states; they encountered weakness in defending the lands they had and fell into great helplessness in the face of the West. England (United Kingdom), United States of America (USA), France, Germany, Spain, Netherlands, Denmark, Italy etc. other colonial European states and other great states of the world such as Russia, China, India; they have continued their exploitation in different ways until today with the new methods they have developed in every century. (2)
The Islamic Countries (ASRICA), the majority of which are located on the continents of Asia and Africa, cannot protect their underground and surface resources against the aggressive strategic moves of the colonialist west; They could not protect their human resources from the destructive cultural attacks of the West, which they serve to the minds through the media, targeting human and moral values. The West used a partially or completely different concept of war in each different century (3),(4). With the disappearance of the Ottoman Empire, Islamic countries were deprived of a protective umbrella against the attacks of imperial states in every field, especially since the first quarter of the 20th century. The west, which could not settle their accounts among themselves after the World War I and could not fully achieve its colonial goals; After the World War II, they continued to exploit the Islamic countries in the Asian and African continents, especially in the energy basins, in various ways, by pacifying their colonial rival states. Thanks to the industrial revolution that started in the 18th century, the western states, which developed well in the 19th century and became greater in the 20th century, enlarged the wave of exploitation on the world with a "tsunami" effect by applying capitalist economic policies.
Through the financial institutions they established (World Bank, International Monetary Fund, various rating agencies, etc.), they tied the countries they had put into a vicious circle with an “economic shackle”.
They chose Islamic countries as their new strategic target, especially after the collapse of the Warsaw pact since the 90s, through the NATO defense alliance they established for their own benefit. For this purpose, they weakened Islamic countries with asymmetric warfare methods (4) using dirty, insidious and bloody methods, and made them become “failed” or “weak” states that could not meet the security needs of their people. For this purpose, by spreading the western lifestyle and culture, which dates back to the 1800s; the “sociological war” (5) they practiced secretly or openly, they established schools, research centers, newspapers and magazines to gather intelligence, and later radio and television channels that would weaken the Islamic society. Among the Islamic countries, which are the heirlooms of the Ottoman Empire, they have camouflaged themselves with the names of Muslims or those who potentially continue to exist as the descendants of those who were recruited from non-Muslim peoples in previous years. However, new systems of exploitation were established by the dictators, the loyal men of the west, over the “secular people” who remained in Anatolia and who preserved the Islamophobia in their genes.
Some prominent western historians, such as Arnold J. Toynbee, declare and confess such situations in their works. (6) In order to strengthen and enlarge the sections of the people who will form the "secular and so-called revolutionary" parties within these states; by creating an aristocratic base that would ally with a privileged bureaucratic group as "civil servant", which they specifically selected and appointed, and on the other hand, an aristocratic base that would ally with them, formed and supported by material and political methods, as tradesmen - Jacobins as businessmen in a way that would ensure the surrender or control of the country to western power centers, satellite states were formed with so-called democratic forms of government, governed by parties that are insensitive to national interests, but comply unconditionally with the interests of western states. Especially in the Republic of Turkey, which was established after the Ottoman Empire, which rose from the ashes of the Turkish nation, which had established great and long-lasting powerful empires in the centuries after accepting the religion of Islam; with the "Official History" books written by western or so-called native (actually collected for the benefit of the west) writers; It has been tried to prevent its re-development and strengthening with a corrupt and inefficient education and training system (7) imposed on the Turkish National Education System and Schools.
In a letter written 100 years ago (November 2, 1917) to Baron Walter Rothschild, one of the important figures of the Zionist movement, Arthur James Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary of the time, promised the establishment of a “homeland” for the Jews in Palestine. (8) 30 years later, with Israel, which it established in 1948, it was founded in a way that would be the basis for the modern Crusader Wars today; Britain, which laid the foundations of a Jerusalem-based Zionist state that was the heart of the Islamic world, has since transferred its lost initiative in the Middle East to the United States. Since then, we have been witnessing internal conflicts, uprisings, internal conflicts in Palestine and Turkey – Iran – Iraq – Syria, which are increasingly coming out of Muslims, and Israel is trying to create an artificial terrorist state that supports itself. (9)
We can count states in Islamic countries such as Turkey, Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia, who have managed to get rid of the shackles that have been placed on them, and have made progress on the path to full independence thanks to some strong and brave local and national leaders.
Pakistan is the only Islamic State with nuclear weapons, although it has been subjected to various social, political and even terrorist intrigues/operations by western states such as England and the USA. Thus, it has a deterrent potential against big western states as well as against India, which is its great enemy in the east.
The event that brought the end of the Warsaw Pact was that in the 1980s, Soviet Russia lost approximately 30,000 dead and hundreds of thousands of injured after shedding the blood of millions of Muslims in Afghanistan for 9 years. (10) The USA and the UK have always used the NATO Defense alliance for their own benefit. The USA, which was defeated in the occupation of Vietnam in 18 years, withdrew, leaving 50,000 dead and hundreds of thousands injured. (11)
Unfortunately, the genocides of France in Vietnam, Algeria, Rwanda and Burundi seem to have been forgotten. France is also a ruthless imperial state that oppresses millions of people. (12)
The western imperialist states, led by the USA and England, sought ways to target Islamic countries after the 1990s, for various artificial reasons they created. It was as if they were accusing the lamb (Islamic Countries) they wanted to eat, just like a wolf, who, by throwing soil into the water in the upper parts of the river, said, “Why are you muddying the water?”
The invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan started with perception and fake news operations created through the media. With the “Arab Spring” (13) movements, which they ignited in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and Iraq aimed to disintegrate and share Syria. With the internal uprisings, which they called the “Velvet Revolution” (14), which started in Czechoslovakia in 1989 and led by the USA in other former eastern bloc countries in the 2000s, evolved into Civil War; The Baltic States, which are neighbors to Russia, wanted to have a say in the Black Sea by making gains by taking these countries into NATO through Poland, Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria and Georgia. Russia's response to these operations resulted in the annexation of Crimea and the separation of South Ossetia from Georgia. Russia, with its permanent initiatives on Syria, has also resulted in the realization of the dream of “going to the warm seas”, the goal of centuries ago, to fortify Syria's military bases on the Mediterranean coast. Essentially, this struggle was a cyclical war that had been going on for centuries, between Eurasia (China & Russia) bloc, and Oceania (Western world led by the USA), as author George Orwell mentioned in his book. (15) These constitute the struggle for civilization, in which one side prevails over the other once in a century. Although all of these are realized by the aforementioned countries producing the latest model warfare weapons and vehicles in the defense (war) industry and putting them on the field; It also enabled another exploitation method, which was not noticed by the Islamic World, which mainly supported the development of the Defense Industry, but started to develop since the middle of the 20th century: Private Military Companies (PMC).
2. PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES
Private Military Company (PMC); is defined as companies that provide logistics, manpower and other services for a military force. (16) Peter W. Singer, known for his work in the private military industry; defines these companies as “legal entities specializing in the acquisition of military capabilities such as military operations, strategic planning, intelligence, risk assessment, operational support, training and technical capabilities”. (17) Another definition is (18): PMCs are businesses that provide specialized services related to war and conflict issues, including combat, strategic planning, intelligence gathering, operational and logistical support, training, procurement and maintenance. PMCs are registered businesses with a legal structure that provide their services primarily for profit rather than political reasons. PMCs range in size from small consultancy companies to large multinational companies (DCAF, 2006). The services provided by PMCs are quite diverse. These services can be listed as follows (Mathieu ve Dearden, 2006:7):
- Combat,
- Intelligence,
- Education,
- Facility, personnel and convoy protection in conflict zones,
- Consultancy and planning,
- Maintenance and technical assistance,
- Operational and logistical support,
- Post-conflict reconstruction.
Similar to military classification, Singer uses the “spearhead typology” in military thought to classify PMCs into three categories based on their proximity to the battlefield:
Ø Military Service Provider Companies,
Ø Military Consultancy Companies,
Ø Military Support Companies.
2.1. Military Service Provider Companies: Military Service Provider Companies provide services that are needed at the forefront of the battlefield. Companies in this sector offer their customers two types of contracts that provide general “troop packages” and “force enhancer” support.
2.1.1. Providing the service in the form of “Troop packages”: In this case, the company provides its customer with a combat unit of a certain size, including heavy weapons, armed helicopters, and fighter jets, that can act independently on the battlefield without the need for local support. In such a case, the fact that the opponents of these units in the wars do not have advanced military training and their number is limited increases the chances of success and reduces the possible risks to be encountered (Singer, 2009:156-158).
2.1.2. Force Enhancer Services: The second type of service offered by military service providers is force-enhancing services. They may undertake tasks such as commanding the existing forces of the customers, directing the operations of these units with the teams deployed to the existing local units. Since customers' forces often receive little training and are not disciplined, it can be effective if a few highly skilled personnel work with this team.
2.2. Military Consultancy Companies: Military Consultancy Companies are companies that restructure their customers' armed forces by providing military consultancy and training services. While these companies can reshape the strategic and tactical landscape, it is still customers who deal with the ultimate risks on the battlefield. This is the most important point that distinguishes them from companies that supply military services. Company employees may not be directly involved in the war, but their support is very important. Because the use of knowledge and education in modern warfare is as valuable as the use of firepower. The contract terms of these firms are longer-term and therefore more profitable than those of service providers. The goal is to have more experience and expertise. For example, the US-based company MPRI offers the experience of thousands of soldiers, including the rank of four-star general, to its customers. The direction of any force by such an advisory group provides a strong military advantage (Singer, 2009:161). The typical consultancy contract specifies the problem the customer is facing. In this article, we will focus more on “Military Consultancy Companies”.
2.3. Military Support Companies: Military Support Companies are companies that provide complementary non-lethal military services such as logistics, intelligence, technical support, supply and transportation. By using these companies, customers' own armies can focus more on war and operations. This sector is the largest, most diverse, and highest-yielding sector. In the context of military privatization, this sector is the least studied (Singer, 2009: 163).
In overseas missions, the American, British, French, Canadian and Australian armies all outsourced a significant portion of their logistics to PMCs. In the First Gulf War, American companies undertook all the maintenance and logistic support of the Saudi Army. Canadian Armed Forces has privatized the entire supply chain, including weapon maintenance and transportation, and transferred it to British company Tibbett and Britten. (Singer, 2009:165).
The number of private military companies has increased rapidly since the 1990s. In addition, the developments after the events of September 11, the period when the United Nations lost its effectiveness and respect for international law was left aside, paved the way for these companies. For example, private military companies became the biggest power in Iraq after the US army. This situation was naturally reflected in the budget transferred to the private military sector.
It has been seen that private military companies are used by the “failed states” that have failed to organize, generally seen in Africa, and by the United States of America (USA) in Colombia, Afghanistan and Iraq. Another reason for the proliferation of private military companies is that the governments of the developing countries, which fail to ensure their national security, create demand by resorting to private military companies. (19)
2.4. States Benefiting from PMCs Both developed and failed states use PMCs to perform some functions of their national armies. At this point, it is useful to briefly examine the types of states: According to Rotberg (2003), states are divided into four as strong, weak, failed and collapsed states. (20)
2.4.1. Powerful states are those that can unequivocally control their borders and offer high-quality political rights (For example, the UK and the USA).
2.4.2. Weak states are divided into those that are weak due to geographical, physical or ongoing economic reasons, or those that are strong but temporarily weakened by administrative problems and external attacks (For example, Nigeria and Tajikistan).
2.4.3. Failed states are a definition used for states that fail to meet basic needs such as ensuring security and social minimum needs compared to modern states (Miliken ve Krause, 2002).
Angola, Sudan, Rwanda, Iraq and Croatia (1991-1995) can be given as examples of failed states in the 1990s.
2.4.4. The concept of collapsed states refers to the inability to establish state authority and the inability to have the authority to operate the basic institutions of the state. In this case, the authority is temporarily provided by the government of another country or other actors.
The situation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Somalia in the 1990s can be cited as examples of collapsed states (Rotberg, 2003: 4-5).
When PMCs are examined based on these definitions, it is seen that all four types of states have resorted to the use of PMCs.
However, the reasons and methods of using PMCs for different types of government differ from each other. While it is possible for strong states to operate in failed or collapsed states by circumventing international regulations, with the use of PMCs, failed or collapsed states prefer to use PMCs to strengthen or re-establish state authority.
2.5. Historical development of PMCs and examples of their use today
Until the end of the 18th century, the number of foreign soldiers in the armies of countries such as Prussia, England and France (predecessors of the PMCs) ranged from 20% to 65% of the army, depending on the needs of the armies.
At the end of the 18th century, with the rise of nationalist movements, the changing defense policies caused the states not to want mercenaries in their armies. Despite this, the phenomenon of the use of foreign soldiers has not completely disappeared in any period, also in today. The main reason for this is that states do not have enough soldiers and specialized skills to fight. For example, at the end of the 18th century, the British Army consisted entirely of volunteer soldiers. Despite this, the shortage of 20,000 soldiers in the British Army during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783) was filled with mercenaries from Russia, the Netherlands and Germany. As can be seen in this example, the national armies did not hesitate to hire soldiers from abroad when needed (Singer, 2009: 63).
The US and UK governments use PMCs to support the activities of their own armies in addition to purely covert operations or modern colonial purposes.
In this sector, in which the USA is the leader, the UK also applies to the use of PMC in an increasing number and rate.
As a relatively new actor emerging in the PMC market, China-based PMCs have started to be seen in the international arena after the 2000s. It is not yet possible for Chinese PMCs to compete with US and British companies in the market due to legal inadequacies. It is also known that these companies are smaller and newer than their western rival companies.
Despite this, it is also known that Chinese PMCs have started to operate in countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan. (YangZi, 2016; Marino, 2013).
In Russia, although there is no regulation for the use of PMCs and there are criminal sanctions of up to 15 years related to mercenary service, a different way is preferred in practice. Slovenic Corps (2013) is known to operate in Syria as a Hong-Kong-based Russian company. It is understood that the Wagner company (Russia, 2015), which takes its roots from the Slovenic Corps company, is supported by the Ministry of Defense. Although this company has no legal basis, it can easily recruit personnel, have armed officers at its entrance door and operate in the field in Syria; In addition to former military personnel, it is seen that he recruits and trains people who have no military experience, and put them on the field as in the Palmyra (Syria) offensive. Considering all these developments, it can be accepted that the benefit of Russia's use of PMCs is high in terms of political and economic costs (Russian RBC Magazine, 2016).
As a result of the effects of globalization, new threats such as terrorism, immigration and transnational crimes have emerged in the field of security. It has been seen that the executive agencies of governments to address these new threats do not have enough expertise and resources. In the arms industry and developing the capabilities of the security forces, governments have started to act together with the private sector. In addition, governments, international organizations and non-governmental organizations have started to lease PMCs for operational activities abroad. The concept of security governance, which emerged in this framework, is expressed as the involvement of private sector and non-governmental actors in the creation and implementation of security policies of governments.
3. USAGE OF PMC BY IMPERIALIST STATES IN ISLAMIC COUNTRIES (21)
3.1. US Companies: The oppressive and corrupt regimes of the Middle East, especially in the last 10 years, offer a good customer profile for the PMCs of strong states. After the withdrawal of the US soldiers from Saudi Arabia, PMCs settled in the region. These US-based companies, with the approval of the US government, protect these regimes and country resources, which have little support, against rising popular movements and threats. Example-1: VINNELL CORPORATION: Vinnell Corporation, whose manager is a former defense minister, defends the Saudi dynasty with 1400 soldiers in Saudi Arabia and advises the Saudi National Troops. The annual income from these activities is around 800 million dollars.
Example-2: BDM, SAIC and CABLE AND WIRELESS corporations: It trains the Saudi army in various fields and provides logistic support. Thus, the US administration is hits two targets with one arrow, thanks to the PMCs. By using the PMCs, the cost of which is covered by the Saudi Administration, it continues to protect the oppressive Saudi regime, which is loyal to it and acts in its own interests, and avoids being held accountable to its citizens and the world. Moreover, it is far away from the control of the congress (Balta, 2004: 15-16).
3.2. British Corporations: The Britain has also used PMCs for political purposes. As a result of the insufficient diplomatic efforts and the UN embargo against the military administration in Sierra Leone, which removed the elected power with a military coup in 1997 and started a massacre campaign against the opposition, the British PMC named Sadline was used. Although it was stated that Sadline Company was involved to protect the mining and construction investments in the country, company officials stated that the British High Commissioner in the country wanted them to organize, equip and train a force that would drive the generals away (Adams, 2003:63).
Table 1: Companies that were Main Actors in the Private Military Industry in the Early 2000s (Mathieu ve Dearden, 2006:6)
Tablo 1: Özel Askeri Endüstri’de 2000’li Yılların Başında Ana Oyuncu Olan şirketler (Mathieu ve Dearden, 2006:6)
In countries where political instability exists, the activities of PMCs increase significantly when the international community does not/could not intervene.
According to this study, the conditions that predispose to military intervention in the target country are as follows: Internal debate, regime change, strategic disputes, border disputes, rebel pursuit, diplomatic surveillance, economic interest, and humanitarian and social surveillance.
Despite all these reasons, states today have difficulties in getting the support of the international public while interfering in the internal affairs of another state. For this reason, states intervene on the grounds of 'humanitarian purposes' in order to gain public support. Nevertheless, a fragile structure is formed in terms of justification and public support for the intervener. For this reason, it is seen that strong states tend to use PMCs that are not under international law and do not bear state responsibility in such cases. In fact, states prefer a proxy to bypass the steps that restrict movement (Pickering ve Kisangani, 2009: 593).
Thus, the political costs that may be encountered as a result of interventions by official forces can be reduced. For example, if PMCs hired for a covert mission to operate in another country do not respect human rights during their activities, the reaction of the international community will be less than the reaction of the states if they directly carried out the same activity. According to the data of PSD mentioned above, military intervention (International Military Intervention) was carried out in 195 (65.9%) of 296 political instability between 1990-2007. When these interventions are examined, it is seen that the PMCs do not always fill the security gap, but sometimes work in cooperation with the military intervention forces.
When the figures are examined, it is seen that only the military interventions in which the PMC operates are 24%, only the military interventions of the states are 39% and the joint interventions are 37%. Therefore, PMCs took part in a total of 61% of military interventions.
In Table 2, all of the activities of PMCs are examined and the ratios of these activities in the private military services market are shown. Accordingly, companies that provide 'military support companies' (combat service support) according to Singer's (2009: 156) classification take the biggest share, both in terms of not having problematic legal infrastructure and professionalism support. In addition, operations support, military consultancy, logistics support and security/protection services have a market share of over 15%. This shows that the four main segments of the industry, consisting of military service supply, military consultancy, military support and private security companies, have market shares close to each other.
3.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WARS AND DEFENSE INDUSTRY COMPANIES AND PMC
It is known that wars make a positive contribution to the profitability of companies working in the defense industry sector. As a matter of fact, after the First Gulf War in 1991, significant increases were observed in the profitability of defense industry companies working with the US Department of Defense and in the stock market performance of company shares. These companies increased their profits with the orders of equipment and weapons they received after the First Gulf War. (Cantenar, 2000). The same is true for PMCs working in the private military service industry.
Large-scale defense industry manufacturing companies have closely followed this development in the private military service industry and have also stepped into the PMC sector to increase their profitability. These new business areas provide synergies to large-scale international companies to make more profit by controlling many areas of an economic sector. PMCs generally emerged as subsidiaries of large companies in the energy and defense industries or were acquired by these companies. In this way, as part of a large team, PMCs can easily enter areas where the armies of other countries cannot enter or are restricted to enter.
Another area where these companies provide support is intelligence and information warfare. Nowadays, most of the information is obtained from open sources. This does not diminish the importance of the information. According to a former director of the CIA, 95 percent of intelligence is obtained from open sources and 5 percent from covert sources. Even in this 5 percent part, intelligence can be obtained by the private sector with the proliferation of civilian observation satellites. The USA has transferred some of its satellite photography mission in Afghanistan to companies named Imaging and Digital Globe (Singer, 2009:166-167). Most of the intelligence analysis and operations of many states and political groups are carried out by private companies and consultants.
The September 11, 2001 attacks and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq were a milestone for the PMC industry. Despite the recession in the US economy after the September 11 attacks, the market value of PMCs increased by roughly 50 percent, and the value of some of them even doubled. The attacks increased the sensitivity to security and the demand for military security expenditures, and PMCs also benefited from this (Singer, 2009:362).
3.3.1. When we evaluate all this information, the critical considerations that arise are as follows:
3.3.1.1. The colonial imperial states do not give the advanced technology they have gained in the field of defense industry to the Islamic countries, and starting from the level of political pressure on the countries they want to impose sanctions, reaching a partial or full embargo, then to get the desired result; It maintains its control over the target country and brings it to the brink of military conflict until it subjugates it, by implementing increasingly harsh military threats up to military sanctions and increasing the pressure.
3.3.1.2. By creating a constant security threat on the target Islamic country through its PMCs, it gains the advantage of making a covert threat and pressure on the rulers of that state. Thus, it gains a continuous power in maintaining its exploitative order.
3.3.1.3. It continues the order of exploitation by preventing the targeted Islamic country from making progress in the field of defense industry, with intrigue and special operations, by preventing the intelligence-based measures it has taken in the past. There are many examples of this in Turkey. [Blowing up the factory that Nuri KILLIGIL (Nuri Pasha) established in the 1920s (where he produced pistols, flasks, iron rods, gas masks and mortars and mortar shells, engines and machinery) (22), Preventing the development of the aircraft industry, which was established and put into production in the 1930s by Vecihi Hürkuş, and its closure as a result (23), Preventing the development of Turkey's first domestic car (24) etc.]
3.3.1.4. If an Imperial country's PMC is assigned to give military consultancy to Islamic Countries, that PMC has never done anything for the good of the Islamic country it serves. By making wrong guidance with incorrect recommendations, it either led to unnecessary expenditure and waste, or caused attempts to be fruitless. [that such incidents have been encountered so far. As an obvious example, it is necessary to cite the memory of the founder, who played a major role in the establishment of “SADAT International Defense Consultancy Inc.”. (25)]
Adnan TANRIVERDI - Retd. General: “Although its geography is covered with forests and has a mountainous terrain, we learned that the Bosnian Army was transformed into a structure dominated by armored units and tanks by the company in question. However, the Bosnian Armed Forces should have consisted of units capable of performing commando and air-mobile operations in accordance with the country's lands. But since the cost of forming these units would be less, it would not be in accordance with the interests of the Private Company and the country behind it.”
4. PMCs IN TURKEY (26)
It is obvious that Turkey is not in the category of failed or collapsed state among the four types of states mentioned earlier. Therefore, PMCs under this heading should be evaluated from the perspective of strong states' use of PMCs in failed states.
There is no developed PMC structure in Turkey as in the USA and the England. There are few military consultancy companies and private security companies (PSC).
In addition, developments in Turkey suggest that PMCs will emerge as an increasingly important actor in the field of defense policies.
In the organization of the Ministry of Defense, there is an important part of the units necessary for the effective use of PMCs. There does not appear to be an obstacle in terms of organization in the operation of PMCs in the domestic and abroad under the control and supervision of the Undersecretariat for Defense Industry. It may be right that the service procurement requests of Turkish and non-Turkish actors regarding Turkish PMCs are handled by the Ministry of Defense, just like the system in the USA.
In addition, requests from non-Turkish actors can also be evaluated within the framework of a law (USA) similar to the International Traffics in Arms Regulations (ITAR) under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Therefore, the Turkish Government's use of PMCs and the demands of other actors can be examined in different ways.
The first PMC in Turkey is SADAT International Defense Consultancy Company(2012). Muslim countries constitute the customer potential of this company. The founder of the company, Retd. Gen. Adnan TANRIVERDI claims that they can provide the expertise needed for the formation of defense policies and infrastructure the countries in the Islamic geography”. (SADAT, 2016; Çelikkan, 2016). Adnan Tanrıverdi has been serving as the Senior Military Advisor to the President since August 2016.
(see http://www.assam.org.tr/ Making a Case of Exemptions (MACE),
see http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034673?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents )
The second example is the company named Akademi Sancak (2014). It is stated that this company received the approval of the Undersecretariat of Defense Industry before contracting with the actors. In this respect, it can be said that the company prefers the method of 'making an exception' within the framework of corporate entrepreneurship.
Both companies act within the scope of the International Traffic in Arms Regulations, which has served in various services in the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) in personnel procurement policy. (https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/regulations_laws/itar.html )
Both are military consultancy companies. They prefer personnel who left the TAF through retirement or resignation.
(Akademi Sancak, 2015). It is seen that the Undersecretariat of Defense Industry (2015: 165) has a positive approach to these companies within the scope of training and consultancy services by including it in the defense industry catalogue.
The Ministry of Defense's (2016) service procurement consists only of cleaning, security, personnel service vehicle rental, information and communication techniques, and partial maintenance and repair activities. With the realization of the necessary regulations, concepts such as 'exporting military service' and 'recruiting military service' (from Turkish PMCs) may emerge, as well as exporting weapons and equipment and making them available to the TAF, just like in the USA.
4.1. Possible Effects of PMCs on Turkish Foreign Policy and Recommendations
4.1.1. Due to its geographical location, Turkey is close to 11 of the current 27 conflict zones. Therefore, it is not possible to remain indifferent to the developments around it, in the region.
4.1.2. In addition, the activities carried out by the USA and the England in these regions through PMCs are quite numerous. While Turkey officially prefers not to be involved in the problems in the region as much as possible, the USA and England are present in the region through PMCs, meeting their intelligence needs and playing their leading roles in the region. In this framework, the question/problem is what kind of an active role Turkey can play alongside its political discourses in conflicts or instability.
4.1.3. Like the unwillingness of developed countries to intervene in the instabilities in the post-cold war period; The governments of the Republic of Turkey will not be able to afford the political cost of personnel casualties that may occur by sending their military personnel to an unstable region in an environment that does not directly concern their own state or in an environment where the public thinks so (Zabcı, 2004: 19).
4.1.4. The fact that PMCs are not subject to international restrictions (other than human rights treaties) held by states makes the option to be used outside the country reasonable. It is an important reason for preference that these companies carry out military activities, which are risky to be carried out due to political cost concerns, and that governments can deny responsibility when they are disclosed (Ercan, 2014: 55).
4.1.5. It should be known that a globalized structure that emerged as a result of neo-liberal (wild capitalism) policies can only be brought under control with global sanctions. (Singer, Lebanon, Palestine-Israel, Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Azerbaijan-Armenia, Chechnya-Russia, Libya, Ukraine-Russia, Refugee Crisis in the Aegean Sea). Therefore, it does not seem possible for Turkey to remain indifferent to this new formation in international relations in the global sanctions gap.
4.2. Examples of the effects that the use of PMC can have on foreign policy
4.2.1. While the Iraqi government could complain to the UN about Turkey's deployment of troops in Mosul, it could not produce a solution for a long time against terrorist organizations' holding a significant part of Iraq.
4.2.2. Still, in critical situations where the political cost is much, the use of PMCs can play a key role. If Turkey had sent a Turkish PMC to the actor who applied to it to train the forces in the Bashiqa region of Mosul, Iraq would not have received any results even if it applied to the UN and the international pressure on Turkey would not have been effective that much. As a matter of fact, this is how the United States resolved Croatia's request for training (Cilliers and Douglas, 1999:115).
4.2.3. The fact that the conflict zones are mostly in the Muslim geography makes the presence of US and British non-governmental organizations and companies in the region more problematic compared to previous years. The data of the International NGO Safety Organization (INSO), which provides risk analysis and data support in the field of security, shows that 100 deaths, 192 injuries and 140 abductions occurred in 1116 incidents in 2015 in 9 countries where non-governmental organization personnel were active (INSO, 2015).
4.2.2. Demand for PMC emerged in Africa and the Middle East. Proposals to retired soldiers in Turkey for this demand trigger the institutional and sectoral development described above.
4.2.3. According to Ahmet Demirok (2015), Ambassador of Qatar (2013-2017), Turkey will be able to follow a more active policy in the region as an actor in this period when the interest of the USA in the gulf region has decreased. For example, within the framework of the agreement signed between the two countries in 2014, Turkey is opening its first military base in the Middle East in Qatar.
4.2.4. In addition, the appointment of Retd. BGen. Ahmet Can Çevik, the manager of Akademi Sancak company, as the military advisor of the Emir of Qatar and the preparation of the uniforms of the Qatar Army by Turkish companies confirm this view.
4.2.5. Considering that other military bases may be opened in this region within the framework of the same principles, it is likely that the TAF will experience the same problems as the US Army in terms of the number of personnel.
(see http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/iraktan-bmye-mektup-turk-askeri-topraklarimizdan-ciksin-40026028 46 International NGO Security Organization 47 see http://www.milliyet.com.tr/turkiye-askeriuskuracak/dunya/detay/2164737/default.htm 48
see http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/vahap-munyar/turk-muteahhitleri-katarda-18-milyar-dolari-yakaladi-40367108)
4.3. Possible Effects of PMCs on Domestic Policy and Recommendations
4.3.1. A Defense Reform study was carried out in 2014 to address the changing and complex new security environment. In the working group, both civilian and military administrators came together and tried to determine a roadmap that would help Turkey's defense strategy. It is seen that the report is a study in the nature of the Roles and Missions Commission (1995) created in the US Congress, the Reserve Forces Act (1996) and the Defense Reform Act (2014) in England.
However, although there is no direct reference in the report, it paves the way for the private sector in this sector and allows the emergence of PMCs.
4.3.1. The main objectives of the report can be listed as follows:
4.3.1.1. Ensuring a transformation that will increase military efficiency and economic efficiency,
4.3.1.2 Directing the developments in Turkey's region beyond its borders,
4.3.1.3 Focusing on combat, which is the main task, by removing the secondary duties of the army,
4.3.1.4. Ensuring cooperation between civilian and military, state and private sector, training civilian experts in the field of defense,
4.3.1.5. It is aimed to increase the role of logistics companies in military activities within a cost-effective framework by evaluating the level of the defense industry sector, to create large companies by evaluating the operation of private companies in state-owned facilities (with an approach similar to England), and to have internationally recognized companies. (Republic of Turkey Presidency, 2014: 4-31).
4.3.1.6. In Turkey, such a method can be applied for military consultancy in Islamic Countries. (It is suggested that it is necessary to form something similar to the International Military Education and Training (IMET) program formed by the USA. (Defense Report, 2014: 34): Accordingly, the US Congress separated the fields of military training and military aid from each other.) Namely, the Ministry of Defense and academicians, under the International Military Education and Training ITAR or Foreign Military Sales (FMS) application, military training is carried out in other countries through military consultancy companies. Therefore, the part of the IMET that concerns the government is the assistance provided within the framework of the Military Assistance Program (MAP) only to the states that do not have the power to finance the US military training consultancy. Within the framework of IMET, it is seen that the US Department of State provided aid to Croatia starting from 105,000 dollars in 1995 and reaching up to 1,032,000 dollars in 2001 (Avant, 2005: 107). Within this context, it is seen that the USA has privatized the transfer of military training and obtained a significant amount of income with this method under its control.
(Commission on Roles and Missions. see http://www.channelingreality.com/Documents/rumsfeld/ FAS_ Unified_Command_Roles_Missions.pdf 51)
4.3.2. In order to ensure social control, it is considered that it would be beneficial to take the following measures beforehand while receiving services from PMCs within the framework of government and private sector cooperation:
4.3.2.1. Assuming PMCs as illegal, as in South Africa, causes them to get out of control of the state. For this reason, playing a regulatory and supervisory role on PMCs, as in the USA and the England, should be considered.
4.3.2.2. It may be considered to issue an accreditation document showing government approval for the establishment of new PMCs. If the capital of the companies does not completely belong to Turkey, there may be a risk that another state will become an actor in foreign policy through PMCs.
4.3.2.3. The fact that companies operate in the stock market and are under the supervision of an institution similar to the Capital Markets Board (CMB) can be evaluated in terms of securing services in line with the interests of the state.
4.3.2.4. When signing contracts with PMCs, it is essential to have expert personnel who will take care of the interests of governments (Singer, 2009: 367). Effective control mechanisms can be established to ensure that companies act according to contracts. [Two contract inspector officers are assigned to each division in the USA (Singer, 2003: 237).
4.3.2.5. The need for reserve military personnel of the TAF is carried out within the framework of the Mobilization and State of War Law. In this law, there is no regulation regarding PMCs. However, the inclusion of the phrase 'private institutions and organizations' within the scope of the law can be interpreted as meaning that PMCs can be given a mobilization task. [ However, there is a need to determine how Turkish PMCs operating outside of Turkey will proceed by being leased by a failed country in the conditions of mobilization.}
4.3.2.6. Examining the legal regulations in Turkey is important in terms of comparison with PMCs in the USA and England. There is no regulation regarding PMCs in Turkey. In this regard, Turkey does not have a signature in the Montreux Convention signed by 52 states including the USA, England, France and South Africa, and in the International Code of Conduct regulation signed by 7 states including the USA, England and Switzerland. Both international regulations can be a good guide in determining the course of action of PMCs. Apart from that, It is seen that Turkey does not have a signature in the regulations of the 1st Additional Protocol to the Genoa Convention (1977) published by the UN High Commission for Human Rights and the Recruitment, Use, Financing of Mercenaries and the Decision No. 44/34 (1989) of the International Convention Against Training. This regulation in 1989 did not have the signatures of England and the USA. If we look at the debate from another angle, it is seen that there is neither a direct trial nor any trial regarding the allegation of 'mercenary service' in Turkey.
4.3.2.7. Law No. 2491, (see Official Gazette, 18215 (1983)) There are rules on personnel selection, sub-contractor company, training of personnel, weapons training, and carrying weapons.
(see https://icoca.ch/en/membership?states_governments= states&op= Search&view_type=map&form_ id=_search_for_members_filter_form
see https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-6&chapter=18&lang=en)
Alparslan Çelik, who shot the pilot of the downed Russian fighter jet in Syria because it invaded Turkish airspace, was arrested for the crime of 'opposing the Law No. 6136 on Firearms, Knives and Other Tools' (2016). (International Committee of Red Cross, 2017; United Nations Treaty Collections, 2017). (see http://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/turkiye/509358 /Rus_pilotu_oldurdugu_iddia_edilen_Alparslan_Celik_tutuklandi.html)
As a result, it is important to make detailed legal and administrative arrangements as soon as possible regarding the prohibition of mercenary service and the regulation of the activities of PMCs in order to prevent problems that may be encountered in the future.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. In this study, it has been stated that the wars have begun to become privatized in the light of the examinations about the PMC. A positive effect of this development is to reduce the burden on the national armies and to give them to PMCs and to increase the combat capacities of these armies.
5.2. This change in defense policies is thought to be permanent. The ability of states to manage the problems that arise in domestic and foreign policy makes it necessary to closely follow all developments in the region and around the world. Although the rapid development of technology causes the quality of the personnel to come to the forefront rather than the number of personnel in the armies, the need to increase the number of personnel who can fight has clearly emerged in Vietnam, Iraq and Afghanistan. Despite the use of high technology in asymmetrical wars in these regions, the inability to get the desired result has led to the questioning of the effectiveness of the armies. Therefore, both technological developments should be followed closely and the number of qualified combat personnel should be increased.
5.2.1. It is seen that two methods are applied for this purpose:
5.2.1.1. The first method is to reduce the number of non-combatant personnel in the general available and replace them with more combat personnel. Thus, it is considered that the personnel need that will arise in the areas where non-combatant personnel work can be met by the private sector.
5.2.1.2. The second method is to increase the number of combat personnel available by using PMCs. This method requires the support of the private sector in all services close to the battlefield, except for combat, which is the 'basic service' from the services of the army.
5.3. The fact that the personnel of PMCs are paid as long as they serve, their fast reaction time, their professionalism and the fact that they are composed of ex-military personnel encourage states, companies, non-governmental organizations and international organizations to use PMCs.
5.4. The lack of regulation in the international arena motivates the use of PMCs by powerful states.
5.5. Due to both religious and historical ties in terms of Turkey's foreign policy, Turkish PMCs can help expand Turkey's sphere of influence in the Middle East and Africa. It may be relatively easy for the local people to accept Turkish PMCs, such as Turkey's non-governmental organizations. For this reason, a 'Turkish-Made PMC' concept that meets the legal and moral requirements in the international arena and has the qualities of the Turkish society and army can be developed.
5.6. Within this context, it may be considered to create a 'code of conduct' list for Turkish PMCs.
5.7. In terms of domestic policy, it can be planned to shape the PMCs in a structure that can meet some of the personnel needs of the army. (In some regions, the external protection of barracks, the security of convoys, the close protection of state officials and the security of critical facilities are among the areas where such companies can contribute. Thus, the number of personnel that can fight without allocating personnel to secondary missions can be increased.)
5.8. In a police station or military facility located in a region where the threat of attack is high and considered to be weak in terms of security, only in the months when the terrorist threat is high, it can be ensured that PMC personnel reinforce and transfer their experiences in different regions.
5.9. In terms of employment, the existence of PMCs will allow retired or contract-expired military personnel to continue their work in their field of expertise. (The personnel recruiting pool of PMCs can be mostly composed of retired or contract-expired military personnel. The fact that military personnel prefer to work in PMCs instead of applying to other institutions and organizations due to their effective motivation sources may result in these personnel being partially within the system. The contribution of the trained workforce to the army will continue in this way.)
5.10. From another point of view, the fact that the personnel working in the army can work in PMCs according to their professional record can also have a motivational effect. In future studies on this subject, examining the historical development of practices similar to the mercenary structure in Turkey will contribute to the literature.
5.11. In addition, detailed studies on the use of PMCs in Russia and China will contribute to the literature in terms of policy transfer and will guide.
6. Prospects of PMCs as a “Military Service Industry” in the Development of a “Common Defense Industry”
As stated on the above pages of this paper, there is no doubt that there is a demand for the service supply of PMCs. Since PMCs are legal entities producing the “Military Service Industry” and operate in a commercial field, it is possible for them to do useful work in the field of developing the common Defense Industry between Islamic Countries. Accordingly, the services that PMCs belonging to Islamic countries such as Turkey, Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, etc. can offer in this field are:
6.1. Among Islamic Countries, those with advanced armies and advanced technology can transfer the defense industry product they need to other countries.
6.2. It can mediate the buying and selling of modern warfare weapons, tools and equipment produced in Turkey among other Islamic countries.
6.3. By acquiring the deep-rooted traditions and talents, training methods of its army with that of a friendly and ally Islamic country, it can be instrumental in strengthening them against imperial countries.
6.4. It can organize bilateral or multilateral collaborations and studies as an effective element in the realization of military and economic cooperation agreements between Islamic countries.
6.5. It can provide strategic threat assessments for the armies and police forces of Islamic countries, and by providing consultancy for the restructuring and modernization of their armies and security organizations in order to eliminate these threats.
6.6. It can modernize the Intelligence Training institutions of Islamic countries.
6.7. It can provide consultancy service on training, equipping and managing the asymmetric warfare units of Islamic countries (Special Forces & Special Operations).
6.8. In Islamic Cooperation, by ensuring that Islamic Countries are organized in regional Federations and in the next stage under a Confederal umbrella organization for a more advanced level; In order to make the Common Defense System, Common Public Security and Security, Common Foreign Policy, Common Justice, Common Management legislation, National power elements available for all these works; (Islamic Joint Army, Islamic Human Rights Court, Court of Justice, Emergency Response Force, etc.) can provide consultancy support in the establishment of structures.
(1) http://www.assam.org.tr/index.php/bolgeler/islam-ulkeleri.html
(2) Sömürgeci Batının Barbarlık Tarihi – Kamer Yayınları 1984- Haçlılar – Misyoner Okulları ve Soykırımlar - Hayri YILDIRIM
(3)Nineteen Eighty-Four, George Orwell – Can Yayınları -2016
(4) Changing Model of War: Hybrid Warfare -Translated by Melih Arda Yazıcı.-- İstanbul: National Defense University, 2018.
(5) Sociological Warfare- Yusuf ÇAĞLAYAN- Timaş Yayınları- İstanbul -2016
(6) “Turkey: Rebirth of a State” -Arnold Joseph Toynbee (14 Nisan 1889, London – October 22, 1975), British historian. It can be said that the Western criticisms on certain issues are in a guiding position in terms of the conservative and Islamist minds in Turkey. For example, his work “Civilization on Trial” was published on different dates by several different publishing houses. His work titled “Abolition of Turkey and the Caliphate” in the 1920s is important in that it officially conveys how this process was perceived in the West, exactly three years after the abolition of the caliphate. It can also be considered that although it is read, it is not used and assimilated. We can mention here that there is not much reference to the “Historical Consciousness” work. It is another fact that his texts could not be translated completely 'uncensored' due to some legal concerns. If it is remembered that 'extraordinary' decisions can be taken according to the conditions of the period due to the fact that people are protected by law, such broadcast preferences can be considered natural. In the 10th issue of Derin Tarih magazine, attention was drawn to the "incomplete" translation of Toynbee's book titled “Acquaintances”, which was completed in 1966 and published in 1967. (https://www.dunyabulteni.net/kultur-sanat/toynbee-ataturke-katilmiyorum-h243236.html)
(7) Tahrif-i Tedrisat - Yusuf Çağlayan - Etkileşim Yayınları
(8) "Balfour Declaration https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/filistinde-isgalin-yolunu-acan-balfour-deklarasyonu-100-yasinda/954461
(9) https://www.icisleri.gov.tr/kurumlar/icisleri.gov.tr/IcSite/strateji/deneme/YAYINLAR/%C4%B0%C3%87ER%C4%B0K/pyd_arapca.pdf
(10) https://beynelmilelpost.com/sovyetler-birliginin-afganistani-isgali/
(11) https://www.yenisafak.com/dunya/yirminci-yuzyilda-soykirimlar-abdnin-vietnam-isgali-2807052
(12) https://www.dunyabulteni.net/tarihten-olaylar/fransizlarin-bilinmeyen-soykirimlari-vendee-ve-vietnam-h189374.html
(13), (14) https://www.tarihiolaylar.com/tarihi-olaylar/arap-bahari-1304
(15) Nineteen Eighty-Four, George Orwell – Can Yayınları -2016
(16) ‘’New Civil Actors of Security in the 21st Century: Private Military Companies and Contractor Companies‘’ Prof. Dr. Sait YILMAZ
(17) https://docplayer.biz.tr/5200014-Uluslararasi-hukuk-acisindan-ozel-askeri-sirketler-ve-sirket-calisanlarinin-statusu.html
(18) Özel Askeri Şirketler Sempozyumu -18 Şubat- Üsküdar Üniversitesi Yayınları – 15
(19) Tangör, Burak ve Yalçınkaya, Haldun, “Güvenlik Yönetişimi Çerçevesinde Özel Askeri Şirketler”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, Cilt 7, Sayı 25 (Bahar 2010), s. 127-154.
(20) Amme İdaresi Dergisi -Özel Askeri Şirketlerin Savunma Politikaları Açısından İncelenmesi Mete YILDIZ* ve Alper EKMEKCİOĞLU
(21) Nergiz DEMİR -Özel Askeri Şirketler (Uluslararası Hukuk Açısından Bir İnceleme
(22) https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2017/gundem/nuri-killigil-kimdir-recep-tayyip-erdoganin-bahsettigi-nuri-killigilin-hayat-hikayesi-2074285/
(23) https://www.haber61.net/gundem/turkiyenin-ilk-ucak-fabrikasini-kim-neden-kapatti-ilk-ucak-fabrikasinin-akibeti-h314900.html
(24) http://www.devrimarabasi.com/tarihce.html
(25) http://www.sadat.com.tr/about-us/why-sadat-inc-international-defense-consulting.html
(26) Özel Askeri Şirketlerin Savunma Politikaları Açısından İncelenmesi Mete YILDIZ* ve Alper EKMEKCİOĞLU**
References
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2. (Bin Dokuz Yüz Seksen Dört, George Orwell – Can Yayınları -2016
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6. Tahrif-i Tedrisat - Yusuf Çağlayan - Etkileşim Yayınları
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